St Francis and the New Orders

Jacques Le Goff on Saint Francis Of Assisi – by Levi King

Hi all. The information below provides a basic overview of the first reading for week 9 by Jacques Le Goff. Together with some questions, I hope you can gain a better understanding of the changing world in which Francis of Assisi established his own belief system.

Growing Urbanization:

Land is the basis of life:

• Land clearances = more cultivation
• The ox is replaced by the horse
• Crop rotations emerge. (Triennial – Three per year)
• Increased number of mills
• Increased population
• ‘Holiness’ becomes a town-related practice (Bishop holding power over a town)
• Towns are places of exchange
• Economic and social inequality are now based on possessions and property, not birth and family
• ‘Bankers’ are taking care of money, not monasteries

Question: How do you think the Church benefitted from this rise of urbanization?

The Church struggles:

• Social and economic standing:
• Put simply, the Church holds feudal secular domination
• The Problem:
• To quote Le Goff. There soon became a “struggle against the incontinence of the clergy”
• Large separations between the clergy and the laity:
• The church begins to put measures on marriage and cohabitation

• The Result:
• The Gregorian reform:
• A reform of the church which was attempting to adapt to outside events
• It established new religious orders, the canonical movement and acceptance of diversity
• Held a large emphasis on manual labour
• Changes in laity:
• Barriers between the laity and the clergy remained, and the laity increased their religious authority
• For example – Arnold of Brescia (1140s) preached of the corrupt life of the clergy
• Church cannot control the flock
• A new “intellectual environment” is established no longer based solely on religion, but scholasticism
• Real opposition to Christianity emerges: Catharism (an actual religion)

Question: Why do you think that the Church turned to the more firm doctrines of sin and sacrament during this time of change?

Francis of Assisi:

• Background:
• Born at the rise of urbanization
• The turbulent social structures above had been established by the time of Francis’ birth
• His religious life:
• The period of Francis’ life saw the laity spark strong opposition to the Church
• Francis was similarly disgruntled by the Church’s supremacy
• Instead of acting in opposition to the clergy, he maintained the practices of “a feeling of poverty,” remaining faithful to the Church “out of humility”
• Ultimately, it seems, he searched for equality between the Church and the laity

Question: What are the limitations to Francis of Assisi’s ‘dream’ the Le Goff brings to light?

Medieval Civilisation – by Chelsea Dullard

The Inquisition:

During the 12^th century, any heretical beliefs or activities had been regarded as treason against society. This view was endorsed and approved by the church and it's figureheads, who originally held faith that accused heretics could once again become diligent and devoted Christians. However, eventually it was conceded that a line of formal inquisition and interrogation must be taken in order to control the rise of dissent within the church. The following procedure usually occurred during an inquisition...

• Suspected heretics could be accused of heresy and the wilful rejection of the church's influence by a church official, or by a member of the laity.
• Following the initial accusation, the inquisitor would then summon the clergy and the public, where a sermon would be delivered. Then, the inquisitor would call for any heretics to denounce themselves. If someone voluntarily denounced themselves, they were granted indulgence by the church, so long as they wished to return to the fold of Christianity. Reformed heretics were then required to take an oath which affirmed their faith, and intentions to pursue heretics. They were also required to serve penance, and had all possessions taken from them.
• If an accused heretic who refused to renounce their faith, or who returned once again to their heretical behaviour were generally burnt at the stake.

The Mendicant Orders:

A Mendicant is a person owned no property and practised begging to provide for their daily needs. A series of new orders emerged, who subscribed to a life of apostolic piety, and who believed that a person could attain salvation whilst living amongst the people, rather than confined to isolation. The Franciscans were the first of these revolutionary orders to emerge....

The Franciscans:

After seeking consolation in Christianity, Francis Bernardone felt that he had been called to serve God. He felt that to do so, and in order to live out a life which mirrored that of Christ, he had to insist on poverty. As such, Francis' followers were not allowed property, and were required to subsist through manual labour and by begging. The Franciscans also lived among the people, tending the needs of the poor, and preaching the word of God. In doing this, they appealed to many Christians desires to live a life similar to Jesus', one of poverty and of compassion. However, the Franciscan method of worship was initially regarded as a form of heresy, and the Pope was quite reluctant to grant the group his approval. Eventually though, he approved the group, and they were able to continue their interpretation of Christianity.

The Dominicans:

The Dominicans were another Christian group who endeavoured to live a life of apostlic piety and poverty. The Dominicans however, differed from the Franciscan's in that they embraced and encouraged education and learning. They also governed their group in a much more modernistic way, the group employed democracy to elect and monitor the actions of their leaders. The Franciscans and Dominicans had a very similar approach to evangelising the European population, preaching and living the word of God.

New Forms of Spirituality:

The establishment of Christian groups such as the Franciscans and the Dominicans embody the  transition which occurred in terms of the way people regarded Christ. Prior to these groups influence, Jesus had been portrayed as a stern judge, however, during the 12^th and 13^th centuries, the human aspects of Jesus were emphasised. This in turn developed a more inclusive and kindlier church.

The Life of St Francis – by Bronwyn Brough

In Celano’s account of Francis’ life, with what values does he imbue the figure of Francis? Discuss with examples from the text.

From Celano’s account of Francis, we are led to believe that he is a changed man after his ‘conversion to God’s work’ from a man who lived ‘riotously among his relations and acquaintances’ to one who was ‘contemptuous for money’ and desired ‘wisdom’ and ‘prudence’.

After hearing the gospel story of Christ sending out the disciples, Francis’ passion was changed from just the physical rebuilding of churches, into a desire to build ‘the church’ through preaching and calling people to repentance.

He attired himself as the disciples would have, but also took it a step further and made his tunic to the shape of a cross, to beat off temptations, rough to discourage ‘sins of the flesh’ and poor so that no one would ‘covet it’.

Francis was portrayed as ‘reverent’ and ‘diligent’, trying hard to do all that the gospel had said.

Some of the main values of the Franciscan order were: Contemplation, Humility, and the desire to imitate Christ.

Celano describes the way in which Francis lives out these values.

Contemplation: We are told that they were continuously praying and praising God: They would try many methods to prevent them from falling asleep during prayer, often painful and damaging. He practiced mortification of the flesh: “not because the body was considered evil- it too was created by God-‘, but because it would distract one from ‘higher pursuits’.

Humility and Patience: They sought out bodily persecution rather than being exalted by the world

Desire to imitate Christ: while not an exact imitation of what Christ did; Francis desired to suffer martyrdom at the hands of the Moslems. This may have been come from the idea of Christ dying for the world, and thus he may have felt that if Christ died in this way, so must he if he were to really imitate Christ.

Francis also appeared to value obedience to God, and through his obedience he was granted authority over animals (p230, 3^rd paragraph from the bottom)

Francis was also consistent in his disdain for wealth; thus he was regarded well by his enemies and was able to preach to the sultan.

From Celano’s stories, how do you understand Francis’ relationship with the natural world?

Francis highly regarded all of God’s creation, including the human body (despite the mortification inflicted upon his own body), -I think this is apparently a new idea to the Christian community at the time?-

Celano tells of many occasions where Francis has an almost unnatural relationship with animals and nature.

It seems that Francis’ view on nature is that everything is created by God, and is thus good. When he is talking to the birds, he expresses his views on how God, their creator, ‘protects and governs’ them. His view on their song and behaviour is that it is an act of worship and reverence to their creator.

Francis appears to see God’s authority over the natural world and from Celano’s account uses that authority in his interaction with many animals; as seen in his telling the swallows to be still and quiet while he preached the word of God.

Celano seems to think that it is through Francis’ obedience to god, that he is granted this gift of authority from God, in being able to command nature. He is described as being able to perform miracles such as healing, even just through being able to touch an object, and that ‘power’ is retained within the object afterwards (such as his clothes, the reins of a horse he had ridden, bread he had blessed, even hay in a manger he had blessed). Whether we believe this is possible or not is irrelevant, what is important is that they believed it then and that is something that influences their lives and reactions to Francis and through him, God.

Clarification

Clarification I:
There are no classes on campus for ATS1316 in week 8. Your posts on the Crusades and Crusade Historians post, below, constitute your 'virtual tutorial' for this week.

Clarification II:
Blogs by presenters in week 9 will go live on Wednesday. Everyone needs to read and comment on these, even if they are not presenting.

Clarification III:
For presenters in weeks 9-11:

Topic	St Francis (wk 9)	Crusades (wk 10)	Black Death (wk 11)
Blog Post to Kathleen	5pm Tue. 24th April	5pm Tue. 1st May	5pm Tue. 8th May
Presentation	Mon. 30th April	Mon. 7th May	Mon. 14th May
Essay Due	Fri. 11 May	Fri. 18 May	Fri. 25 May

Important Announcement

Unfortunately the audio of the week 7 lectures have not been recorded. The slides are available, however, on both MULO and Blackboard. I am very sorry for the inconvenience, but sometimes technology does fail. I know that some of you have clashes and need to rely on the recordings. I would urge, however, those of you who can attend the lectures to do so, because that is the only absolutely guaranteed way that you have of hearing the material
Cheers, Clare

Crusades and Crusade Historians

  [Edit: spellings corrected. Thanks to JJ for noticing.]

Truce between Christians and Saracens.

Matthew Paris, Chronica Maiora, Parker MS 16II, f.139v.

In lectures during week 7 Clare raised the issue of thinking about where historians are coming from when they write. I'd like us to try and incorporate this into our discussions in this week's virtual tutorial. I've provided some links that give you other people's perspectives on Christopher Tyerman, author of the chapter on the Meaning of the Crusades, and his work. There are reviews of one of his recent books by Jonathan Philips - another well-known historian of the Crusades - and Dame Janet (a.k.a. 'Jinty') Nelson, a prominent early medievalist. I've also given you a link to an interview with Dr Tyerman himself. If you can, I recommend reading through these after you've looked at Tyerman's chapter. Address the questions in the reading pack, but also consider whether Tyerman's view seems to represent a consensus; and how his views differ from or relate to those of others who have written and thought about the Crusades.





Urban II preaching at Clermont


• Review of God's War by Jonathan Phillips in The Telegraph, September 2006.
• Review of God's War by J.L. Nelson in the London Review of Books, 2007.
• Interview with Christopher Tyerman about his book God's War.

In this interview, Tyerman talks about how it is misleading and ahistorical to draw direct connections between modern wars in the Middle East and the medieval crusading movement. I agree with him on this point, and it brings me to a general matter I forgot to mention in class, which is: while modern parallels and experiences can be useful tools for helping us think about the past, we should never confuse them with historical argument itself, which always has to be based in the evidence and context of the period. I'm sure you knew this - but especially following our discussions about ANZAC cove and Canterbury it seemed a good time to remind ourselves of this point...



Urban II preaching the crusade



But back to the Crusades! The Institute for Historical Research in London runs a monthly seminar about the Crusades, so clearly there's no shortage of opinion and debate on the topic.



The same was true at the time of the very first crusade. As Megan told us a couple of weeks back, pope Urban's sermon was recorded in different versions by a range of observers. Does applying similar principles of interpretation to these reports help you think about how and why they differ? Where were these medieval writers coming from, do you think? Why were they writing? Who was in their assumed audience?
Post your thoughts and responses to these readings below by Monday evening. Then we'll be moving on to St Francis and Co.!

Gender Roles

This week in Medieval Europe we will look at the establishment of women within Canon Law, as well as women's place in society. Juxtaposing women such as; Eve, Mother Mary, Mary Magdalene and Joan of Arc are all important figures during this period. 

The role of women in Christianity is emphasised through Mary, mother of Jesus and how she - virginal - gave birth to not only the saviour but to a new age of believers and life.

What other female figures outside of the readings can you identify as being important in Medieval Culture? And what were your thoughts on the roles of such women aforementioned before? Were women in Christianity simultaneously revered and considered subordinate?

--Lauren

These readings cover medieval attitudes to women by revealing attitudes towards important women in Christian theology. Women were defined by their gender and sexual status – as maiden, wife or widow.  The power, sexuality and worth of women was both treated with suspicion and suppressed, and the authority of men emphasised. However, some women did manage to overcome these conditions. 

Bible:

• Woman (Eve) created for man, out of man, to be a helper to man…before ‘betraying’ him and getting them both kicked out of Eden
• Mary as the Mother of Jesus, worked with God and was ‘giver of life’ – opposite to Eve, who defied God and became the ‘giver of death’ (st Jerome). Virginity and purity emphasised
• Mary Magdalene a sinner who reformed, became a leader amongst her Christian community in Marseilles, converting the local governor and performing miracles. Later lived in wilderness, saw angels etc.

Sexuality:

• Abelard unsurprisingly is pro-sex…shows that the ideas he counters were common at the time of his writing the  letter (eg sex is not sinful just because it is enjoyable).
• Augustine of Hippo very negative towards sex – marriage and procreation ‘makes something good out of the evil of lust’, defending marriage: good for creating children and companionship, lust, fornication, infidelity and adultery are all temptations of Satan.
• St Jerome prizes virginity very highly – equates loss of virginity with Adam and Eve being expelled from Eden. Only acceptable states for women (makes no mention of men) are to be virgins or to be married.

Power of women/women in power:

• Ancien Riwel demands nuns essentially hear no evil, speak no evil – modesty and demureness required.
• Saint Scholastica apparently had the power of influencing nature – but used it for a petty purpose (to force her brother stay with her), a very negative portrayal. Her brother Benedict was nevertheless a good person, and gave her a good Christian burial.
• Radegund may have established a convent, but was reliant on help and support of men to finance her convent, and for protection; women must be ‘taken under ward’
• St Clare writes that women are weak and fragile of body, but willing to take on the same hardships as her male counterparts.
• Joan of Arc first thought to be ‘deranged and deluded’ for boasting she could accomplish what the princes could not. Had to fight to be heard and taken seriously. Wore men’s clothing, suit of armour and rode with the men.
• Christine de Pisan clearly outlines dominant thought at the time: that women were subordinate to men, and prevented men from being all they could. The minds of women were thought to be inferior, and not worth an education. Nevertheless challenges all these notions by use of reason.

--Sian

Women and the family 

In the Medieval era gender roles played a major role in society.  The Klapisch article is divided into four main categories the role of women, marriage, children and the church. 

1. Women:

Society granted no specific place for them in the hierarchy. As they were not knights or could they be religious leaders. Women were defined by their body, gender and her relationships with family groups.

The role of women:

• Be obedient to their husband, father or care giver.
• Used to reconcile families and groups in society.
• Responsible for maintaining the alliance between the two clans.
• Husband comes first and her choices and opinions come second.
• To produce children and start the family line.
• Order and punish servants if they could be afforded.

Women had little rights:

• A widow a right to one third of her husband’s estate.
• Loss of rights and possessions when their husband died.
• Less control over their wealth as they were under the control of their husband.
• They must be obedient to their husband.
• Women could be kidnapped or forced into marriage or the convent.

2. Marriage:

Marriage was used as a way to end rivalry as two families joined together, forming a peace pact. A woman may be given to a man as a way to offer reconciliation. An example of marriage being used as a peace treaty, is in the eleventh century when the king of France Henry I married a bride in Kiev to form an alliance.  In Florence in 1300 the party of whites formed an alliance with the blacks as a man of the Cerchi family married to an Adimari bride. 

It was not uncommon for marriage to occur between blood relatives. At times brothers and sisters would marry if fortunes required it.

When women got married it involved two transfers the transfer of the bride to the new family and the transfer of wealth. Goods or money were given by the husband or his family to the family of the bride in exchange for the loss of their daughter. Later these gifts were given to the bride herself to assure she was maintained after her husband’s death.

By the twelfth century the dowry value from the wife’s family overcame the value of the husbands.  Women after their husband’s death would often loose what she had bought and what her husband had given her.

The age of marriage varied between social classes.  In 1200 the aristocracy tended to marry their girls young at 12 and 13 at which Cannon law permitted. Rural classes tended to marry their daughters of at 17 or 18. In Florentine bourgeoisie between 1340 and 1530 136 brides were married at the average age of 17.2.  Whereas young men tended to get married even later with an average age of 27.

3. Children:

Children were necessary in marriage in order to establish the male line. After the birth of their first child other children would follow at a rapid place. In 1461 one wife become a widow at 29 after having 12 children in her 13 years of marriage. Pregnancies occupied more than half a woman’s life before 40. Families would have between 10-12 children. However not many of them lived long, a child had a 1 in 2 chance of making it to adulthood.

4. The Church:

The Church had a great influence on marriage and the role of women in the Medieval era. The Church was against blood relation marriage however in 1215 the fourth Lateran Council lowered the requirement for marriage in the family from seven degree to four. The church also forbids the use of contraception as it would prevent new life.

Duties of the wives in the Medieval era range from forming alliances, to keeping the peace to raising the family to obeying the husband. Although women from different classes have different roles and needs they have one thing in common they are both seen as below men.

-- Steph D. & Erika

Marriage Making

In the high Middle Ages, marriage was matter of diplomacy and wealth, not love or mutual attraction. Marriage forged an alliance between two lineages, reinforced by the exchange of money, goods and property and the creation of offspring. The wife's job was to maintain peace between the two families and have as many children as possible.

Women often married into families of a lower social status, bringing with them a dowry for their new husband’s family. Women became a burden on the men of their family, who had to come up with a dowry in order to marry them off. Boys brought money into the family by way of marriage and girls took money away from it.

In addition, the control of any property a women inherited was transferred by default to the closest male relative, then to their husband when they married. Women were financially worth less than their husbands, in spite of any superiority of lineage and the inheritance they brought into the marriage. Their lack of financial worth could be equated with their lack of personal worth at the time, except for when it came to procreation. IN contrast, men could run businesses, own land and be self-sufficient.

Due to this dependency on men, girls were known to be married off, at the guidance of their fathers or brothers, as early as twelve. Men got married later, at an average age of twenty seven, when they had reached a certain social standing and level of power. Girls in lower classes got married an average of five years later than those coming from wealthy families or the aristocracy.

Marrying earlier meant that a women could have more children which, at a time where child mortality was very high, was very important, especially in ensuring that the lineage carried on.

Source: Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, 'Women and the Family', in Jacques Le Goff, ed. The Medieval World, (London: Parkgate, 1990), pp. 285-312.

--Jenn

Some questions to think about :

1. Do you think sexuality was understood in a positive or negative way?
2. What impediments does Klapisch-Zuber see to studying the lives and experiences of medieval women?
3. How does Klapisch-Zuber describe the duties of the wives in the Middle Ages?

Easter Week

Hi everyone,
I hope you're having a nice break - but not too much of a break, because essays are looming! Use time off lectures and tutorials to get ahead on your research if you can. In the meanwhile, here's some medieval Easter music to pass the time...

Resurrexi, Music for Easter Sunday, British Library, Crowland Gradual, c.1240.

The image shows a manuscript called a Gradual, which is a collection of musical items for the Mass. There are two musical pieces on the page. The decorated capital R is the beginning of the introit for Easter Sunday. An introit, as you might guess from the name, is sung at the beginning of the Mass. This one comes from Psalm 138, and reads, in Latin:

Resurrexi, et adhuc tecum sum, alleluia. Posuisti super me manum tuam, alleluia. Mirabilis facta est scientia tua, alleluia. Domine probasti me et cognivisti me. 

[I rose up and am still with thee, alleluia. Thou hast laid thy hand upon me, alleluia. Thy knowledge is become wonderful to me, alleluia. Lord, thou hast proved me, and known me]

Listen to a performance of a medieval setting of this psalm by Schola Cantorum here

Then, with the large black "h", begins another psalm, no. 118:
Haec dies quam fecit Dominus: exultemus et laetemur in ea

[This is the day that the Lord made: let us be glad and rejoice in it.]

Listen to a performance of a later (16th century) setting of this psalm by The King's Singers here

Can you make out any of the words, now that you know what it should say?

See you on Monday week,
Kathleen

The Passion

The Passion, for those who don't know, is a term for Jesus' crucifixion on Good Friday. In medieval times one of the symbols of this was the pelican. A widespread story, often illustrated in Bestiaries, related how the pelican fed her starving young with her own blood; this was taken as a metaphor of Christ's sacrifice. The Pelican in her Piety, as this story was called, became a common artistic motif in medieval religious architecture, and in encyclopaedic books. The image here shows the Pelican in her Piety represented in a misericord at St Mary's Abbey, Beverley, in Yorkshire, a famous example of 14th century English Gothic style. She is pecking her own breast to release the blood and feed the chicks. (They weren't shy of graphic images in those days!)

Pelican in her Piety, St Mary's, Beverley. By awmc1 @ flickr

A misericord is a little folding seat in the quire (i.e. choir) area of churches that the monks or canons could lean on during long services. It comes from the Latin for mercy, because allowing a tired singer to sit down was like taking mercy on him! In the medieval period the underneath of misericords, like the one shown here, came to be decorated in marvellous carvings, since this was the part of the seat most often visible to those moving about the church between services. Some had religious images, and others had very surprisingly secular ones, like illustrations from tales of knightly deeds and the rescue of fair maidens, or images of monsters.